3. Sultan IIIc1 - Early Bronze IIIA (2700/2650-2450 BC)

In the following period of Sultan IIIc1 (Early Bronze IIIA), the city was rebuilt with several important transformations affecting the fortification system, and consequently the general urban layout, and the outline of the dwelling quarters.

A completely new composite double city-wall was built � with separated juxtaposed blocks[11] � all around the site, overlapping the previous solid wall only on the western and part of the northern side. It was made of an inner main wall up to 4.0 m thick, protected on the outer side by a filling sustained by an outer wall (1.5-1.6 m thick). The gap between the inner and outer walls was either filled up with crushed limestone (hawwara), or with soil resulting from razing activities on the previous city collapsed strata, or hosted blind rooms (a kind of �casemates�) related to the main wall and used as storerooms or pathways[12]. This articulated system, which at several spots also foresaw a ditch at the bottom of the outer wall, and reached an overall thickness of 12 m, was a major achievement of the Jericho ruling institution in the Early Bronze IIIA, and was at last investigated by the Italian-Palestinian Expedition in Area B West[13], at the south-west corner of the site, where the nature of the filling in between the inner and outer walls was clarified [14], and the stratigraphy of the two superimposed main fortification systems (previously interpreted by K.M. Kenyon as a sequence of at least 17 different phases), belonging respectively to Sultan IIIc1 and IIIc2, was definitively established[15].

As regards the general urban layout, the investigation in Area D, though not reaching Early Bronze III layers[16], supported the hypothesis that the main city-gate during this period was located at the south-eastern foot of the Spring Hill in front of the �Ain es-Sultan. On the other hand, excavations in Area G, on the preserved top of the Spring Hill, have shown that a main retaining wall supported the central area of the site, where public buildings were located (see below)[17].

The main street crossing the city south-west/north-east was one of the Sultan IIIb features kept in this period, as the excavations in Area F, on the northern plateau of the tell, demonstrated. Here, a huge portion of the dwelling quarter extending to the west and to the east of the street running north-east, at this stage named L.307[18], was brought to light. Eight domestic units (from south to north, L.450, L.323, L.319, L.305+L.327, L.303, L.403+L.405, L.445, L.904) in a fairly good state of preservation were exposed on the eastern side of the street, and one more unit (L.444) was uncovered on its western side. Only L.904 opened directly towards the street, through a doorway (L.902) with a raised threshold paved with three stone slabs. Further to the north, the street was brought to light up to the edge of denudation of previous excavations[19], thus showing that the it turned slightly towards north-east. Architecture shows the use of mud-bricks on field-stones foundations only at the moment of the first erection of buildings. In the following reconstructions, walls were raised horizontally, and new mud-brick structures were built directly upon them without stone foundations. This made obviously quite complicated to investigate the constructional  history of each house, also because the same houses were repaired many times and continuously used with varying layouts. Each domestic unit was provided with a hearth and various working installations, such as benches, cutting and grinding slabs, pulping holes. Another common architectural feature is the use of timber as pillars, often inserted within walls, or freestanding on stone bases, as known in many other Palestinian sites.

Findings belong to the ordinary domestic assemblage, mainly illustrating food production and preparation: flint blades and sickles, stone pestles and grinding stones. Faunal remains, among which several bones belonging to butchered animals, show an integrated diet of tamed animals (sheep and goats, but also bovines), and wild species, such as gazelle and wild boar. A hippopotamus bone, found in the 1998 campaign, deserves a particular interest; cutting marks indicate that it was butchered in the house. The presence of such an animal in the Jericho Oasis not only is the latest attestation in inland Palestine, but also testifies to the abundance of water sources in the Lower Jordan Valley, especially by the �Ain es-Sultan and the nearby �Ain el-Lodjia[20]. The bull�s head found by John Garstang and made of hippopotamus tusk ivory may be, thus, locally manufactured[21], as well as another similar specimen from an unknown spot of the site.

Other domestic activities are testified to by items such as worked bones, bone and copper pins, and loom weights and spindle whorls related to household textile production. Clay disks may be interpreted as counterweights used in weaving activities, as they were found together with spindle whorls and loom weights[22]; sea-shells and mother-of-pearl fragments hint at commercial links with the Red Sea and the Mediterranean Sea. Especially, sea-shells have a large attestation, being often pierced at their hinge, presumably in order to be hung in laces. Due to their high number in EB III contexts, anyway, it has been also suggested that they were used as counters or represented some sort of tallying system in a kind of pre-administrative procedures[23]. Actually, the existence of a productive system coordinated by a central administration is perhaps more consistently demonstrated by findings such as balance weights[24] (of 2 shekels and 1 mine), which are possibly related to metal and other precious stuff (sulphur, salt, ointments, drugs, bitumen, etc.) exchange.

 More rare finds are metals, such as an arsenical copper pivot and an enrolled foil, possibly belonged to wooden furniture, as well as a worked bone cylinder, decorated with a hatched motive, which is fairly typical of the period[25]. The pottery assemblage of this phase included Simple Ware vessels decorated with a reddish painting or wash, Red-Polished Ware (a globular juglet with a couple of knobs is a distinguished type), and various shapes of Khirbet Kerak Ware[26]. The latter specialised production seems to have a relatively wide attestation in the inventory of Sultan IIIc1[27]. It is noteworthy that together with specimens clearly imported from the North, mainly retrieved in contemporary tombs[28], KKW fragments from the site suggest the existence of a local manufacture of such ware, which is distinguished by the firing (at a slightly less high temperature, which results in a dark grey or orange colour of surface, instead of black and red), and by a prevalence of small open shapes such as slightly carinated bowls.

 

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